In pre-mechanized warfare the shock attack of massed equestrian cavalry was always a weapon of great consequence; and although mounted combat and massed cavalry formations were often part of various ancient military forces, during the medieval period in Europe they truly came into their own. The addition to the medieval saddle of the stirrup, thought to have been brought into Europe from the East around the 8th century, made complex cavalry maneuvers somewhat more manageable and rendered armored European horsemen even more versatile and effective in combat. Under the social system of feudal manorialism, this led to the rise of a new European social class: a class of warrior noblemen who were specifically defined by the fact that they fought as cavalry... the medieval knight.

     In ancient Rome, a similar equestrian warrior class had also existed. These were citizen landowners who were required by law to defend the Roman Republic during times of war. What set them apart was their wealth, which gave them the ability to own and maintain horses for use in battle; thus a social fraternity of fellow warrior-horseman emerged in service to the Republic. These were the equites Romani (Roman cavalry). The financial requirements for owning a horse initially kept the rank of equites quite exclusive among highborn Roman families, but by the third century B.C., when mercenary Gallic, Spanish and Numidian cavalry began to replace the Roman mounted regulars, the term equites came to designate a non-senatorial property class.

     The medieval descendent of the Roman equites was the feudal knight. The word knight is derived from the Old English word cniht, the definition of which means, literally, "servant." This refers to the fact that medieval knights were sworn to the service of their liege lord. But the word chivalry derives from chevalerie which is based on cheval, French for horse. An additional Latin word which is the basis for many derivations concerning knighthood is the Latin designation caballarius, meaning "horseman." In fact, in most medieval and romance languages, the name for "knight" has the same basic meaning: horseman. In German, the knight is a ritter (rider). In Spanish, the knight is a caballero. In French, he is a chevalier.

     In the strictly military sense, chivalry was the heavy cavalry of the Middle Ages which constituted the chief and most effective warlike force which could be fielded. The knight or chevalier was the professional soldier of the time; in Medieval Latin, the ordinary word miles (warrior) became indistinguishable from the word "knight" in contemporary manuscripts. This pre-eminence of cavalry was correlative to the decline of infantry on the battlefield. It was his martial use of the horse that set the knight apart from other classes of fighting men. Upon horseback, he was the most formidable combatant in a medieval army; without his mount, he was simply another footman: a battlefield pedestrian.

     Knighthood flourished before the ascendancy of advanced missile delivery systems, when armies still relied primarily upon heavily-armored combatants to do the bulk of the fighting. Even during times of peace, knights looked for conflicts in which to test their deadly skills. Combat was relatively commonplace in day-to-day life, and the common people, who generally could not protect themselves against an invading foe, looked to these knights for protection. To secure refuge the poorer folk became the serfs or villeins of more powerful neighbors, and those in turn were the vassals of those still more powerful. The institution of knighthood was an integral part of this feudal system.

     The education of a knight typically began around the age of seven, when he was taken from his home and sent to the castle of some famous nobleman, perhaps his father's lord. Here he learned etiquette and manners by serving the lord and lady as a page until he was 14 years old. His duties, which included serving at the lord's table, he considered a privilege and accompanied his benefactors at all times. He received religious instruction from the chaplain and training in arms from older knights-in-training-- He was taught by his mistress and her ladies to honor and protect women-- He learned to sing and to play the lute, to hunt and to hawk. But above all else he learned to ride a horse.

     At the age of 14, he graduated to the rank of squire where he learned to handle sword and lance and to bear the weight of the heavy armor. The title of squire derives from the Latin scutum (shield), hence scutarius (shield-bearer), devolving to the French escuyer, or "esquire." In addition to his other duties, the squire had now to carve at the dinner table and to accompany his knight to war where he assisted him in putting on his armor. He saw to it that the knight's sword and other armaments were maintained. He stood by to give aid in conflict should his lord be overmatched and to lend his horse should the master lose his own. It was the squire who raised his knight when he fell and who bore his body away if he were wounded or killed in battle.

     There were numerous classifications among squires which denoted their duties and specific position in service to a knight. The Squire of the Horse was tasked with the maintenance of the knight's various mounts and tack; the Squire of the Body acted as personal valet to the knight, helping him dress and groom himself, preparing his garments and personal accoutrements, and preparing his bedclothes for sleep; the Squire of the Table, or Carving Squire, was charged with serving the knight at table and carving portions of meat at the feast. Only the richest and highest ranking knights could afford more than a few squires, however, and often a single squire was responsible for performing all of these duties in service to his lord.

     In the Prologue to Geoffrey Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales' is the following description of a squire: "His clothes were embroidered red and white, as it were a meadow of fresh flowers. All the day he was singing or playing upon a lute, he was as fresh as the Month of May. His coat was short, with long wide sleeves. Well could he sit a horse and ride, make songs, joust and dance, draw and write. He loved so ardently that at nighttime he slept no more than a nightingale. He was courteous, modest, and helpful, and carved before his master at table."

     At the age of 21, if he had stood well as page and squire, and provided he or his family could afford to pay the prohibitive costs of equipping the young knight-candidate for battle, the knight-aspirant would be formally awarded the rank of knighthood. Those who couldn't afford to pay for the necessary equipage and ceremonies were often denied the promotion, leaving them in a state of limbo as perpetual squires until they could acquire the necessary funds to graduate to knighthood. In order to qualify, a would-be knight must provide himself with a suitable harness (armor), weaponry, garments and warhorse, plus pay for the ceremony of investiture.

     Early on, the act of raising a squire to knighthood or "dubbing" him a knight was a simple ceremony, often occurring on the battlefield; it involved the ritual striking of the "battlefield colee" and words something to the effect of "Be thou a knight." Later, as the social class of knighthood became more established, the ceremony became more intricate. If the knight-aspirant could afford it, his knighting was an occasion of elaborate ceremony and solemn vows. The Church ordained a special blessing for the knight in the ceremony called in the Pontificale Romanum, "Benedictio novi militis." After a purification bath, the candidate for knighthood knelt or stood all night in prayer before the altar on which lay the precious armor he would don on the morrow. In the morning there was a religious ritual, with perhaps a sermon on the knight's duty to protect the weak, to right wrongs, and to honor women. Then in the courtyard in the presence of the assembled knights and fair ladies, a knight's armor was buckled on, piece by piece, a sword was girded about his waist, and spurs were attached to the candidate's feet. He then knelt to receive the colee, or accolade. This was a blow upon the neck or shoulder, given by the officiating lord or knight with his fist or with the flat of a sword. As he gave it he said, "In the name of God and St. Michael and St. George, I dub thee knight; be brave and loyal," or other words to a similar effect. The ceremony was followed by exhibitions of the young knight's skill in arms, often in an impromptu tournament setting.

     Every knight was qualified to confer knighthood, provided the aspirant fulfilled the requisite conditions of birth, age, and training. Heredity was important; only those who were the sons of a knight could be automatically raised to knighthood in such a way. Where the condition of birth was lacking in the aspirant, the sovereign alone could create a knight, as a part of his royal prerogative.

     Though first and foremost warriors, knights were also presumed to be "gentlemen" according to all the contemporary connotations of the word. The ideal knight is described by the poet Chaucer: "And though he was valorous, he was prudent and as meek as a maid of his bearing. In all his life he never yet spoke discourteously but was truly a perfect gentle knight."

     No knight was thought to be properly equipped without at least three horses: the battle horse, or dexterarius, which was led by hand, and used only for the onset (hence the saying, "to mount one's high horse"); a second horse, palfrey or courser, for the route; and the pack-horse for the luggage.

     In addition, the knight ideally required several attendants: one to conduct the horses; another to bear the heaviest weapons, particularly the shield or escutcheon; still another to aid his master to mount his battle horse or to raise him if dismounted; and a fourth to guard prisoners, chiefly those of quality, for whom a high ransom was expected.

     These attendants, who were of low condition, were not to be confounded with the armed retainers or men-at-arms, who formed the escort of a knight. From the thirteenth century the squires also went armed and mounted and, passing from one grade to the other, were raised finally to knighthood.

     Banners and the armorial coats-of-arms depicted upon them were a distinctive mark of chivalry. They were attached to, and carried on, the lance. There was a sharp distinction between the pennon, a flag pointed or forked at the extremity, used by a single chevalier or bachelor as a personal ensign, and the banner, square in form, used as the ensign of a band and reserved to the baron or baronet in command of a group of at least ten knights, called a constabulary. Each flag or banner was emblazoned with the arms of its owner to distinguish one from another on the battlefield. These armorial bearings afterwards became hereditary and gave birth to the complicated science of heraldry.

     The career of a knight was costly, requiring personal means in keeping with the station; for a knight had to defray his own expenses in an age when the sovereign had neither treasury nor war budget at his disposal. When land was the only kind of riches, each lord paramount who wished to raise an army divided his domain into military fiefs, the tenant being held to military service at his own personal expense for a fixed number of days (forty in France and in England during the Norman period). These fees, like other feudal grants, became hereditary, and thus developed a noble class, for whom the knightly profession was the only career. Knighthood, however, was not hereditary, though only the sons of a knight were eligible to its ranks. In boyhood they were sent to the court of some noble, where they were trained in the use of horses and weapons, and were taught lessons of courtesy. From the thirteenth century, the candidates, after they had attained the rank of squire, were allowed to take part in battles.

     During the height of the Crusades, several orders of knighthood were founded. Among these were the Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, known generally as the Knights Templar. Other religious orders included the Knights of the Hospital of St. John or the Knights Hospitaller, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, and later, the Teutonic Knights of Germany.

     There were also a number of purely secular orders of knights founded by various monarchs in Europe. Some of these orders have persisted into the 20th century; membership is bestowed upon citizens who have made outstanding contributions to society in the arts, sciences, politics, and the military.

     Perhaps the best-known order is that of the Garter, established by Edward III of England about 1348. Other orders of the British Empire are that of the Bath, founded by George I in 1725; the Order of St. Michael and St. George, founded by prince regent, subsequently King George IV, in 1818; the ancient Scottish Order of the Thistle, thought to have been founded about 787 and revived by James II in 1687; the Royal Victorian Order, founded by Queen Victoria in 1896; and the Order of the British Empire, founded by George V in 1917. The Irish Order of St. Patrick was founded by George III in 1783.

     Other countries had organizations of knights as well. In France the Order of the Golden Fleece (Toison d'or) was founded in 1430 by Philip of Burgundy. It later became the principal knightly order of both Austria and Spain. Portugal had the Order of St. Benedict of Avis. In Germany there were the orders of the Black Eagle and of the Red Eagle. Russia had three orders: St. Andrew, St. George, and St. Nicholas. The Danish Order of the Elephant was founded in the 15th century and revived in 1693. The Norwegian Order of St. Olav was not founded until 1847. In the Far East, Japan had two orders: the Chrysanthemum and the Rising Sun. In countries that are no longer monarchies, the best-known modern order is the French Legion of Honor which was established by Napoleon in 1802. Other republics have similar orders of merit to award civilian and military honors.

     War, as a regular occupation for a gentleman, had many disadvantages. Although it was necessary, from time to time, to go to war in the service of one's liege lord, this included the disagreeable prospect of death or dysentery, sleeping on the cold, stony ground or baking in one's armor harness under a blazing sun. But in a tournament, a knight could enjoy all the excitement, danger, and glory of war, with none of the dirt, flies, disease or discomfort. After the fight he could soak his bruised, bloody limbs in a warm bath, eat a good dinner and retire, appropriately accompanied, to a soft bed. In war he might win fame and fortune; in tournaments he could win these and much more.

     The words "tournament" and "joust" are often used indiscriminately; strictly speaking the "just" or "joust" involves single combat between two opponents, whereas "tournament" refers to the "melee" or mounted combat between bodies of armored knights outside of warfare. "tournament" is also used to describe the overall event or series of events at which such combat takes place.

     The origin of the word tournament is not fully known, though it has been suggested that it derives from the fact that medieval knights rode at the quintain, and often at one another, 'par tour' or in turns.

     The tournament, in its earliest form, was basically a mounted sport whereby participants prepared themselves for war. It may have derived from the Roman 'Game of Troy' (ludus Troiae) or from similar war games practiced by Germanic tribes of the same period, in which mock battles were fought.

     The true, medieval-style tournament or "tourney" is generally thought to have originated in France and the earliest tournaments appear to have evolved in mainland Europe. Knightly sports developed very early on as a result of a combination of factors, namely a natural inclination towards weapons and feats of military valor, a need for regular training and a desire to demonstrate one's skill and physical prowess in before one's peers. In the 9th century, the historian Nithard, who was Charlemagne's grandson, described a tournament held in Strasbourg around 842 in which two equal parties of Saxons, Basques, Austrasians and Bretons met one another. However, a reference to a similar encounter in Barcelona, as far back as 811, has been recorded. Many major tournaments between the 10th and 12th centuries were in fact held in Germany, where they are said to have been organized by Henry the Fowler (876 - 936). After the middle of the 10th century AD historical records of tournaments and tournament-style combat events became rather common. One such recorded reference is dated in the year 1066, and makes mention of a certain Godfrey de Preuilly (or Galfridus de Pruliaco), a Norman knight who is believed to have contributed the first written tournament rules. Unfortunately, according to at least one contemporary chronicle, he was supposedly killed at the very tournament for which he set the guidelines. Other evidence suggests that he was treacherously murdered, though not while at a tournament. In any case, Preuilly definitely didn't "invent" the tournament as has been elsewhere credited to him; a chronicler of the early twelfth century named Geoffrey of Malatesta wrote about tournaments taking place on the island of Sicily in his grandfather's time.

     There are many references to such European events during the 12th century, and during this century such events became quite popular amongst the mounted soldiery of the continent. In addition, there are certain documents which detail the arrival of the sport in England during the reign of King Stephen in the mid 1100's.

     The advantages availed to a knight by participating in such an event were obvious. There was excitement and renown to be won in war, but just as much renown could be won, at far less inconvenience, in a tournament during peacetime. Tournaments were, at first, simply brutal combats arranged on some pretext at a suitable rendezvous between parties of knights. From these rough and bloody conflicts there eventually developed a more structured form of tournament, conducted according to a basic code of predetermined rules.

     During the developmental stage of the practice, tournaments were essentially a mock battle, fought with real weapons in the preferred style of the day. These early tournaments consisted universally of a 'melee' or small battle in which skirmishing tactics were refined and applied; often these engagements would last several hours or days and would range over a wide topographical area, occasionally spilling into nearby towns and settlements. The rules were fairly straightforward and rudimentary. A safe zone would be established where the wounded and captured might be taken to remove them from the press of combatants. Teams would be chosen or assigned, then all participants, upon hearing the command to charge, promptly crashed onto the tournament field and proceeded to unhorse all others by any method at hand until a winner was determined.

     Such melees were, in effect, small wars, with the primary distinction between them and actual warfare being that, technically, a state of warfare did not officially exist between the two opposing factions at the time. In any event, early tournaments lacked almost all of the ceremony and structure which governed such events in the centuries to follow.

     During the 12th century, however, tournaments began to become more organized. The single greatest unifying factor which appeared at this time was the almost universal adoption of the "lance charge" which began the melee, in which armored opponents started such contests by mounting a tremendous cavalry charge against the opposing side. The two forces would clash together, often at great cost to men and mounts, then, when the respective charges had ground more-or-less to a halt, the two sides would begin to pound one another, riding to and fro, jockeying for position. The melee would become a swirling mass of horses and riders, the participants hacking and slashing at one another in an attempt to win the advantage for their side. Fatalities were not uncommon. It is no wonder that the practice was banned by several popes throughout its colorful history.

     Initially, tournaments could be held anywhere, at anytime -- in an open field, in "the lists" of a nobleman's castle, or even occasionally in the streets of a town or village. Though early on there were typically no provisions made for spectators, local bystanders often did assemble to view the action. Since some of the combat took place in public streets, laws were even passed requiring the tournament participants to wear bells on their horses so that the populace could hear them coming and get out of their way; this is why so many period illustrations depict knights wearing bells attached to their tack and horse trappings.

     The "list" or "lists" of a medieval castle were the areas of property located between the outermost wall and the inner bailey wall or donjon keep. The word itself derives from the Old High German word lista, meaning "border." The Italian word lista has an almost identical meaning, referring most commonly to a thin strip of some type, bordering a larger object.

     The castle lists, then, were narrow strips of ground sandwiched between two walls or barriers; later the term was generally adopted to refer to any bordered area where an arranged medieval combat took place.

     During the 13th century new rules were developed and implemented to add to the relative safety of both participants and observers. An alternative form of lance was developed, the 'lance of peace'. This was similar in most respects to its deadlier cousin, except that its tip had either been rebated (blunted) or replaced by a metal crown-shaped head called a coronel, which was designed to disperse the impact of the blow. In addition, rebated swords came into general use at tournaments around the same time, along with lighter more specialized armor, and all such armaments were grouped together under the title 'armes a plaisance' (arms of courtesy). Nevertheless, actual sharpened weaponry and heavy field armor was still used in certain circumstances, the 'armes a outrance' or "arms of war." Such weaponry was utilized in serious challenges and combats, the contest ending when one combatant was killed or disabled.

     The brutal developments that had taken place in tournaments so often had fatal consequences that in the 9th century Pope Eugene II anathematized them. His successors followed suit: Innocent II, Eugene III, and Alexander III in the 12th century, Innocent IV in the 13th century and Clement V at the beginning of the 14th century, excommunicated all "tourneyers" and forbade the burial of victims in consecrated ground. It made no difference, however, and the slaughter continued. English contests became so savage that the English clergy eventually forbade the Christian burial of those killed in tournaments. "Those who fall in tourneys will go to hell," scolded one monk.

     Tournaments were generally viewed with disapproval by the church because they distracted the knights from their various duties of religious piety, and by the state due to what was regarded as an unwarranted loss of life. Popes preached against them and Kings regarded them with unease, nervous about the potential threat a large gathering of military forces could impose onto politically unstable regions. Both were quite powerless to stop them. The knights' enthusiasm was already too great and the powers-to-be were forced to extend a grudging tolerance to the new sport. Still, obviously the new sport was a dangerous one. According to the chronicler of an English tournament in 1256, many of the noble contestants "Never afterward recovered their health."

     The Statute of Arms for Tournaments, established in 1292, helped curtail some of the more gratuitous bloodshed at tournaments. Under this edict all Knights were required to abide by the ideals of chivalry and fair play, which reduced the abhorrence of the church considerably. At the end of the thirteenth century, when tournaments ceased to be miniature battles with no holds barred, they became organized spectacles under the grudging tolerance (if not the formal acceptance) of both church and state.

     Many participants were accidentally killed while participating in such events. The names of the most famous victims have been preserved in medieval chronicles. Geoffrey de Magneville, Count of Essex, killed in 1216: Florent, Count of Hainault and Phillip, Count of Boulogne, both killed in 1223: the Count of Holland in 1234: Gilbert of Pembroke in 1241: Hermand de Montigny in 1258: John of Brandenburg in 1269 and John, Duke of Brabant, in 1294. In 1240, at the tournament of Nuys, near Cologne, sixty knights and squires perished, trampled or crushed to death by their horses. The most deplorable incident of all was the death of William Montagu, who was killed by his own father at a tournament in 1382.

     Yet alongside these unfortunates a breed of experts was already evolving who can be likened to the sports champions of today. These men traveled all over Europe winning fame and fortune simply by virtue of their skill at this dangerous sport. In the 13th century William Marshall, who was to be regent of England during the minority of Henry III, amassed considerable wealth by this method.

     The official position of the church and state regarding tournaments was a matter of political climate and current fashion. In England they were proscribed by Henry II during the 12th century and then restored by his successor, Richard I. In 1299, they were again banned by Edward I, despite the fact that he himself had led eighty knights to the tournament at Chalons in 1274. They reappeared in even greater numbers during the reign of Edward III, who issued safe-conducts to any Frenchmen willing to meet his knights in courtly combat. But even Edward III temporarily banned public jousting in 1370, since it was distracting his knights from their duties in the Hundred Years War.

     The huge "melee" tournament which had dominated the twelfth and most of the thirteenth centuries eventually lost popularity as the new style small-scale joust emerged towards the end of the thirteenth century. The rules and rituals of these warlike occasions grew more complicated as time went on. The increasing influence of women resulted in the dangers being greatly reduced and by the 15th century the tournament had been transformed into an exhibition of gallantry as much as a display of sporting prowess.

     Fundamental to the eventual evolution of the tournament was the idea of chivalrous and romantic conduct. A knight selected a lady; beautiful and preferably married to a husband of slightly higher rank. In her honor he would fight in a display of "courtly love." The French excelled in this department, whereas in England, a tournament was regarded more as serious training for war. To kill a man in a tournament was considered wrong - or, at the very least, unfortunate. For killing a horse there was no excuse. The knight's object became one of knocking off their horses as many opponents as possible, and in the process, breaking as many lances as possible; obviously the more lances a knight broke, the greater must have been the force of his charge and the higher his level of horsemanship.

     The word joust probably traces its ancestry to the Roman juxtare, which means "to meet together." From that same Latin root we still derive such words as "junction" and "juncture." In any case, the actual practice of one-on-one jousting appeared upon the tournament scene no later than the first part of the 13th century, possibly much earlier. The Joust immediately became quite popular, almost eclipsing the melee style tournament in later years. The reason for this was two-fold; firstly, the joust, with its "mano y mano" or one-on-one scenario was an excellent way for an individual knight to match his prowess with an opponent in a more controllable, and more publicly visible, environment. The medieval knight certainly enjoyed sharing the spotlight only with his opponent, in a venue where all spectators could easily follow the action. Secondly, a combat in which a knight individually faced his opponent was far less likely to erupt into a bloody brawl far beyond the eyes and control of the Marshals who refereed such events.

     More personal glory combined with substantially less risk; these two elements combined to catapult the formal joust into a position of prominence among other tournament events.

     Technically, the word "joust" refers to any form of regulated one-on-one combat, either upon horseback or on foot. The redefinition of the word to mean specifically equestrian combat with lances was a later development, probably born from the fact that "joust" combats typically included knights as their primary participants, and throughout the entirety of the medieval period and well into the early renaissance, the horse and lance were considered the primary arms of the knight.

     The most accurate specific term used to describe equestrian combat with lances as sport is "tilting." The origin of this word is well documented; it derives from the Scandinavian-based Middle English word "tilten," and means "to cause to fall." In a tilt, therefore, a combatant armed with a lance attempts to "tilt" his opponent from the saddle. The sport of tilting consisted of an encounter with lances between two knights, run in a series of passes. The rules were simple: A prescribed number of courses could be run, or a predetermined number of lances (usually three) could be broken. If a combatant struck an opponent off target, he was penalized; if he struck his opponent's horse, he was disqualified. The point of aim during the most basic form of equestrian tilt was either the four nails of the shield, or the helm or throat armor (though later developments included the crest mounted atop a participant's helmet as an allowable target). Points were awarded for breaking a lance against one's opponent or unhorsing him completely. If the contestants desired to proceed beyond the agreed-upon number of passes or broken lances, both could dismount and the combat could continue on the ground with other weaponry.

     Tilting, which proved very popular with the spectators, usually marked the beginning or end of a tournament. Alternately, they could be held outside the bounds of a greater tournament event, or even all by themselves for their own sake. When not part of a tournament, these confrontations were called "great and plenary jousts open to all comers."

     The sport of tilting rose to its greatest popularity in Europe by the 1400's. Like other tournament activities, the proceedings originally served more to hone fighting skills than to provide popular diversion. But in peaceful times, a knight needed a means whereby he could retain and further hone his skills. With or without tilting, jousts were great money-makers for the victors; instead of claiming mere points, the winning team held the losers "for ransom," typically accepting the horses and armor of the vanquished as payment.

     A low partition wall or rail fence, or "tilting barrier" separating contestants to prevent accidental collisions, was first introduced around 1420 strictly as a safety measure to reduce injury to horses.

     King Henry VIII of England was a great patron of tournaments, and was known to be a formidable jouster, as were many other princes of his day. But lack of public interest and the development of new more modern methods of warfare eventually led to the opinion that armored duels such as jousting were quaint and somewhat old-fashioned. This trend, plus the accidental tournament deaths of several nobles and at least one king, King Henry II of France in 1559, eventually resulted in the almost complete discontinuation of equestrian sport tilting as public spectacle.

     The quintain was a target against which a warrior might practice his skill at arms. Its use dates back to the time of the Romans, in various forms. For mounted warriors and knights, a version of it was created which consisted of a post set into the ground or a heavy base with a revolving arm on top. At one end of this arm was attached a shield or target of some sort; on the opposite side of that was a heavy weight such as an iron ball or a sandbag. As soon as the target was struck the entire top, or revolving arm, would spin. If the rider was not moving fast enough or did not successfully avoid the spinning weight by ducking, he would be struck on the head or back.

     There was another form of lance practice which proved most useful to the medieval knight, an exercise known as "running at the ring." This consisted of attempting to spear a small target, such as a ring or other hollow shape, while traveling at a fast canter or gallop. There were various ways to do this, and the targets themselves were either suspended by strings from poles, attached along the fence rail or were held by brave individuals upon the ground. By teaching themselves to accurately strike relatively small targets in such a fashion, and at various speeds, the medieval knights developed considerable accuracy with their lances.

     As the seventeenth century approached, an alternative needed to be found to replace the medieval tournaments which were rapidly being outlawed due to excessive injuries. The nobles would not be deprived of a game that displayed one of their best qualities, their skill at equestrian sports. The substitute they found was the origin of the "carousel." The name comes from the Italian word garosello and the Spanish word carossela, meaning "little war." One of the equestrian games played at the carousel was inspired by a training exercise for tournaments: the game of "catching the ring." Elaborately costumed noble participants instructed by their coaches, the great horsemasters of Europe, introduced a whole new era of the sport of catching rings. Some of the most comprehensive written accounts of "running at the rings" date to the days of James I of England. Accounts of famous festivals during the sixteenth and seventeenth century, including King's Day in honor of James I, list at least nine festival occasions where "running at the rings" was featured. Louis XIV at the court of France, was reputed to be one of the best at this new, considerably less dangerous sport.

     Antoine Pluvenil and Grisonne, two men often credited as the front-runners of classical riding and dressage, both instructed Kings and noblemen in the finer points of riding and "riding at rings." Pluvinel in his 1623 book Maneige Royal, devoted 1/3 of the manual to instructing King Charles on his ring riding skills. There were several other games played at the carousel. They were the quintain-type games which involved lancing a pivoting figure or dummy with a lance from horseback, and another version first referred to as a roundabout which involved lancing small rings from seats suspended from a revolving apparatus with seats, which were later changed to small wooden horses. We know these apparatus today as the carousel, bedecked with magnificently painted horses. Marie Antoinette was particularly fond of this aristocratic game and even had a building erected at Versailles Park to house her carousel.

     Such rotating devices, descended from the spinning medieval quintain, are the precursors of Victorian carousels, forerunner of the modern "Merry-Go-Round" or "Roundabout." Many turn-of-the-century carousels were adorned with a variety of objects which one could grab as the carousel revolved, among them a brass ring which entitled the bearer to a free ride; hence the origin of the modern term "to seize the brass ring," meaning to grasp for success in a particular endeavor.

     The rise of the ideals of so-called "courtly love," which first appeared in southern France during the 12th century, and the chivalric romance epics which gained popularity in the 13th century, brought to the forefront notions of courtesy among chivalry. There was an increasing awareness that honor should be done to a lady by her champion-- as portrayed in the contemporary romantic literature. Records of the time speak of "tokens" from ladies dresses being presented and carried as "favours;" a veil, ribbon, or the detachable sleeve of a ladies dress might be worn on the arm, attached to the helm or tied to the lance. By openly wearing such items in tournament combat, the knight "so favoured" would be dedicating his performance in the day's combat to the lady herself, hopefully doing honor to her name by a display of his prowess.

     Winning knights were awarded customary "golden rings" along with kisses, in a formal and elaborate prize-giving ceremony by the ladies of the court, who had rapidly become central to the whole ideal of knighthood during the fourteenth century. The task of choosing the Grand Tournament Champion at the end of the proceedings often went to the lady spectator of the highest social rank, who would judge the various participants on their courtesy and social graces as much as for their physical prowess.